About 70% to 80% of all kidney stones are composed of hard crystals of either calcium oxalate or insoluble phosphate salt, or a combination of both. Calcium stones are the most common type experienced by people of Anglo-Saxon descent. They occur in people who have hypercalciuria, a condition characterized by excessive calcium in the urine. Calcium is a normal part of a well-balanced diet, responsible for maintaining the health of teeth and bones. In most people, excess calcium is flushed out by the kidneys and excreted in the urine. People with hypercalciuria build up excess calcium in their kidneys, where it joins with other waste products to form a stone. In about 40% of people who develop calcium stones, this buildup is caused by an inherited metabolic disorder whose cause is unknown. In rare cases, a tumor on the parathyroid gland may trigger an overproduction of parathyroid hormone, the chemical that regulates calcium metabolism. Certain drugs, such as the diuretic furosemide, antacids and steroids, can produce hypercalciuria. It also can be brought on by certain intestinal diseases, excessive amounts of vitamin A or D, or a diet too high in purine, typically associated with meat, fish and poultry consumption. Calcium oxalate stones also are commonly associated with having too little vitamin B or too much vitamin C in one's diet.
A tube passed through the body for draining fluids or injecting them into body cavities. It may be made of elastic, elastic web, rubber, glass, metal, or plastic.
 |
Catheterization | |
| Insertion of a slender tube through the urethra or through the anterior abdominal wall into the bladder, urinary reservoir, or urinary conduit to allow urine drainage. | ||
 |
||
Certain types of kidney stones can be dissolved with the application chemicals. Uric acid stones, for example, can be dissolved with a solution of sodium bicarbonate in saline. Cystine stones may be treated successfully with a combination of acetylcysteine and sodium bicarbonate in saline. Struvite and carbon apatite stones can be treated with an acidic solution of hemiacidrin. The procedure involves infusing the chemical solution into the affected area by means of a ureteral catheter in a series of treatments over time until the stone is dissolved. The patient's urine must be cultured regularly throughout the course of treatment to guard against urinary infection and prevent the buildup of excessive chemical levels, particularly magnesium, which can cause other health problems.
If there is reason to believe RCC is present and sufficiently advanced to have metastasized, the doctor may order a standard chest X-ray to determine if it has spread to the lungs or bones in the chest area.
As in cases of CBP, the initial bacterial infection may be caused by bacteria traveling up the urethra and reflux of infected urine into the prostatic ducts. This can be brought on by the use of a urinary catheter, enlargement of the patient's prostate, a bladder infection or bacteria acquired by engaging in anal intercourse.
Clomiphene citrate, a synthetic steroid drug related to estrogen (female sex hormone), has both anti-estrogenic and estrogenic effects. In men with oligospermia (low sperm count), clomiphene has been used to increase gonadotropin secretion, which, in turn, may stimulate testosterone release and improve sperm output (see also Endocrine Disorders). Yet the male response to the drug is not as pronounced as that seen in women. Clomiphene usually is given in oral daily doses of 25-50 mg for a 3- to 6-month period. However, the results from clomiphene trials are extremely variable, with differing success rates for conception. Therefore, more clinical data are needed to confirm the effectiveness of this drug.
Since estrogen therapy appears to heighten the response of nerve receptors in the urethra (that is, the alpha-adrenergic receptors, which increase the tone of striated and smooth muscle), it is believed that a combination of estrogen and alpha-adrenergic agonists (drugs specific for the alpha-adrenergic receptors) may be beneficial in women who have undergone menopause and who lose bladder control because of insufficiency (malfunction) of the urinary sphincter muscles. A common estrogen/alpha-adrenergic agonist combination is phenylpropanolamine (PPA, 25-100 mg twice a day) plus intravaginal or oral conjugated estrogen (1.25 mg/day orally or 2 g/day vaginally). Phenylpropanolamine is found in many over-the-counter cough/cold preparations, such as Tavist-D, Comtrex, Dimetapp, Triaminic, and Robitussin-CF.
Also known as a computer-assisted tomography or "CAT" scan, the CT scan is a type of X-ray procedure that gives three-dimensional images of internal organs or glands. It can be used to detect pelvic lymph nodes enlarged by cancer, although some authorities suggest its results are insufficient for a clear diagnosis. CT scans typically are used only when tumors are large or associated with high PSA levels.
An uncommon inherited disorder that may be associated with a lack of 21-hydroxylase - an enzyme found in the adrenals (glands above each kidney). Hyperplasia (overgrowth) of the adrenals leads to excessive production of adrenal testosterone that, in turn, inhibits the release of pituitary gonadotropin. Early puberty and short stature (height) are hallmarks of CAH. However, congenital adrenal hyperplasia is difficult to diagnose, since affected men often appear "normal" and sexually mature, without excessive masculinization. Men with CAH often will show low/normal blood levels of adrenal steroid compounds, such as cortisol. In addition, they may have low/normal urinary levels of 17-hydroxycorticoid and high urinary levels of 17-ketosteroids and pregnanetriol (a byproduct of the pregnancy hormone progesterone). Testicular tumors sometimes are detected in men with CAH (see also Testicular Tumors). Dexamethasone may be used to suppress adrenal secretion in men with CAH. In addition, glucocorticoid therapy may provide fertility benefits in men with CAH by increasing sperm output.
|
|
Cryosurgery |
 |
| This treatment alternative uses a TRUS-guided probe to deliver freezing temperatures to the cancerous tumor. Intermittent freezing and thawing kills the cancer cells. Long-term results of cryosurgery are still unknown. Reported side effects include urinary incontinence, rectal injury and impotence. | ||
|
|
||
 |
Cryosurgery | |
|
|
Freezing the Prostate | |
|
|
Cystoscopy | |
Cryptorchidism, also known as cryptorchism, is the failure of one or both testes to descend (move down) into the scrotum. The descent usually is complete at birth or by the end of the first year of life. However, if the testes do not drop and remain in an upper, abdominal location, spermatogenesis (sperm production) and, correspondingly, fertility, usually is impaired. Unilateral (one-sided) cryptorchidism is associated with oligospermia (low sperm count), whereas uncorrected, bilateral (two-sided) cryptorchidism usually is associated with azoospermia (no sperm in the semen). Researchers believe that the increased temperature within the abdomen harms the enzymes and proteins that are responsible for normal sperm production. Sperm quality may be especially poor in men who have bilateral undescended testes.
In men, the doctor will obtain prostatic fluid from the patient. This fluid will be examined for signs of an infection, which can be treated with antibiotics.
A lump filled with either fluid or soft material, occurring in any organ or tissue; may occur for a number of reasons but is usually harmless unless its presence disrupts organ or tissue function.
- Cystectomy : Surgical removal of the bladder.
Cystine is one of the body's chemical building blocks, an amino acid that helps make up nerves, muscles and other body tissues. A rare genetic defect called cystinuria can cause excessive cystine buildup in the urine, leading to the development of cystine stones in the kidneys. Cystine stones are relatively rare, occurring in about 1% to 2% of persons who experience kidney stone disease. Because it is genetically inherited, the condition often runs in families.
People with interstitial cystitis (IC) have an inflamed, or irritated, bladder wall. This inflammation can lead to scarring and stiffening of the bladder, decreased bladder capacity, glomerulations (pinpoint bleeding) and, in rare cases, ulcers in the bladder lining.
A cystocele (SIS-tuh-seal) occurs when the wall between a woman's bladder and her vagina weakens and lets the bladder droop into the vagina. This condition may cause discomfort and problems with emptying the bladder.
The cystometrogram is the most important of the urodynamic tests. It is used to examine the different phases of bladder function, such as filling and voiding. During cystometry, the intra-abdominal pressure (pressure within the pelvic cavity) and the detrusor pressure (downward-pushing pressure of the bladder) are electronically recorded and subtracted. In tests of filling cystometry, the bladder is filled to capacity, then tested for volume, sensation, involuntary instability (contraction, or muscle squeezing) and compliance (yielding to pressure). Any change in detrusor pressure may indicate an abnormality, especially if it mimics the patient's symptoms, such as urgency and increased frequency of urination. The patient is asked to cough and strain with a full bladder. Urine leakage without a change in detrusor pressure may indicate a diagnosis of stress incontinence. By contrast, patients with urge incontinence may experience detrusor contractions, with urine leak during filling and a related sensation of urgency. Voiding cystometry tests usually are normal in patients with stress incontinence, urge incontinence, and mixed incontinence. However, patients with intrinsic sphincter deficiency may lose urine without any indication of detrusor contraction. In addition, patients with an acontractile (noncontracting, nonsqueezing) bladder -- for example, patients with diabetes, spinal cord injury or prior pelvic surgery -- will have a low detrusor pressure during voiding and a pattern of straining.
Cystoscopy, or cystourethroscopy, is a test that lets the physician see the inside of the bladder, bladder neck and urethra. A cystoscope (a thin, telescope-like tube with a tiny attached camera) is inserted into the bladder through the urethra. The physician then moves the cystoscope to detect any abnormalities in the urinary tract, such as trabeculation (strands of connective tissue), diverticula (sacs caused by abnormal holes in the organ), fistula (abnormal passages), an ectopic (displaced) ureter, ureterocele (ballooning of the lower end of the ureter), tumor, or changes in the lining of the urinary tract.
A cytology exam of urine is an examination of the cells that appear in the urine. This test can detect and help diagnose some urinary tract diseases. The urinary tract contains the kidneys, bladder, and the tubes that connect these organs to the outside of the body.